Acetic Acid, Phosphate-Buffered Saline and Bacteriostatic Water as Peptide Reconstitution Solvents: A Research Review of Weak-Electrolyte Acid–Base Chemistry, Buffer Composition, Net-Charge Solubility Classes and the Catalogue Vocabulary Behind "acetic water", "pbs chemistry" and "bac water peptides" Labels

Peptide Insider Research Desk · 2026-09-23 · Handling & Storage · Research reference only

Catalogue listings for lyophilised research peptides are almost always accompanied by a second, quieter product line: the solvent. Search logs for this vocabulary are dominated by three phrases that look like chemistry homework but originate in the research-reagent catalogue — acetic water, pbs chemistry and bac water peptides. Behind each label sits a defined aqueous system: dilute acetic acid (a weak electrolyte with a well-tabulated pK_a), phosphate-buffered saline (a Dulbecco-era isotonic buffer) and Bacteriostatic Water for Injection (sterile water preserved with 0.9% benzyl alcohol). This review sets out the acid–base chemistry of each system, the compositional definitions found in pharmacopoeial monographs and the primary literature, and the physicochemical logic by which a peptide’s net-charge class predicts which solvent dissolves it. It then maps the catalogue and query vocabulary onto that chemistry with an explicit research-use-only (RUO) scope status. No dosing, reconstitution-volume or administration guidance is given; the material is strictly for research reference and not for human or veterinary use.

1. Acetic Acid as a Weak Electrolyte: Why the Catalogue Says “0.6%”

The most frequent chemistry query in this cluster — is acetic acid a strong electrolyte — has an unambiguous answer: it is not. Acetic acid (CH₃COOH, C₂H₄O₂, CAS 64-19-7) is a weak monoprotic acid. Its ionisation, CH₃COOH ⇌ H⁺ + CH₃COO⁻, has an acid dissociation constant K_a of approximately 1.75 × 10⁻⁵ at 25 °C, corresponding to a pK_a of 4.756 in the NIST-compiled thermodynamic tables of Goldberg and colleagues [1]. At the 0.1 M concentration implied by a “0.6%” label, only about 1.3% of molecules are dissociated at equilibrium, so the solution conducts poorly relative to an equimolar strong-acid solution. That is the operational meaning of “weak electrolyte”: partial ionisation, not low concentration.

Two companion queries, why is acetic acid a weak acid and its variants why is acetic acid weak / why acetic acid is weak acid, resolve to the same structural argument. The carboxyl proton is held by an O–H bond whose heterolysis yields a carboxylate anion stabilised by resonance across two oxygens, but the methyl group is electron-donating relative to hydrogen, so acetate is less stabilised than formate and far less than the conjugate bases of mineral acids. The conjugate base of acetic acid is therefore the acetate ion, CH₃COO⁻; the pair CH₃COOH/CH₃COO⁻ is the textbook acetic acid and conjugate base couple that gives acetate buffers their capacity between roughly pH 3.8 and 5.8 [1][2]. Because acetic acid is fully miscible with water in all proportions — the direct answer to is acetic acid water soluble — dilutions are limited by the analyst’s target pH rather than by solubility.

Catalogue shorthand compresses all of this into strings such as acetic acid 0.6, 0.6 acetic acid and, by truncation, 6 acetic acid. All three denote the same reagent: a 0.6% v/v aqueous dilution (≈0.1 M) prepared from glacial acetic acid. The phrase acetic water, and the initialism-style aa water peptide, are vendor and forum contractions for that dilution when it is sold or recommended as acetic acid water for peptides. Under the labels acetic acid reconstitution solution and acetic acid for reconstitution, the reagent’s function is to hold a peptide below the pK_a of its side-chain carboxylates (Asp ≈ 3.9, Glu ≈ 4.1), suppressing net negative charge and, for many basic or amphipathic sequences, dramatically improving initial dissolution [8][10]. The industrial question how do you make acetic acid (carbonylation of methanol, or oxidative fermentation by Acetobacter) is outside laboratory reconstitution practice and is recorded here only as a nomenclature neighbour.

2. Phosphate-Buffered Saline: Composition, Buffer Range and Origin

The query what is pbs solution and its abbreviated forms pbs chemistry, pbs chem and pbs in science refer to phosphate-buffered saline, an isotonic buffered salt solution introduced by Dulbecco and Vogt in 1954 for poliovirus plaque assays [3]. The canonical 1× formulation (often labelled DPBS without calcium and magnesium) is 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na₂HPO₄ and 1.8 mM KH₂PO₄, adjusted to pH 7.4 with an osmolality near 290 mOsm/kg. There is no single pbs chemical formula because PBS is a mixture, not a compound; the label pbs compound is a category error that the crosswalk table below records as nomenclature. Buffering derives from the second dissociation of phosphoric acid, H₂PO₄⁻ ⇌ HPO₄²⁻ + H⁺, with pK_a2 ≈ 7.20 at 25 °C and ionic strength 0.1 [1]. Applying the Henderson–Hasselbalch relation, pH = pK_a + log([HPO₄²⁻]/[H₂PO₄⁻]), the 10:1.8 ratio of the two phosphate salts lands the system near pH 7.4 by design.

The literature that surrounds the query how to make pbs solution is largely methodological. Good and colleagues’ 1966 survey of hydrogen-ion buffers catalogued phosphate’s advantages (cheap, non-absorbing in the ultraviolet) and liabilities (precipitation of divalent cations, a temperature-dependent pK_a, and pH shifts on dilution) and introduced the zwitterionic “Good’s buffers” as alternatives for metal-sensitive systems [2]. For peptide work the salient consequences are that PBS cannot be used with copper- or zinc-complexed peptides without risking phosphate precipitation, and that its physiological pH places acidic peptides in their most soluble, deprotonated state while placing His-rich or Cys-containing peptides at the pH range of fastest deamidation and oxidation [11][13].

3. Bacteriostatic Water Versus Sterile and Deionised Water

Queries phrased as bac water what is it, bacteriostatic water what is it, what is in bac water, what's in bac water and what is bacteriostatic water made of converge on a pharmacopoeial definition. Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP, is Sterile Water for Injection to which 0.9% (w/v) benzyl alcohol has been added as an antimicrobial preservative; it is unbuffered, non-isotonic and supplied in multiple-dose vials [18]. Meyer and colleagues’ 2007 survey of preservatives in parenteral products documents benzyl alcohol as the most frequently used agent in multi-dose formulations and describes its mechanism (membrane disruption of vegetative bacteria) and its limits (bacteriostatic, not sporicidal or virucidal) [4]. The catalogue variants bac sterile water, sterile water bacteriostatic, bacteriostatic solution and the misspelling bca water all denote the same USP article; peptide bac water, peptide bacteriostatic water and bac water peptides denote it in the reagent-catalogue context, and bacteriostatic water peptide science is a vendor-anchored form of the same string.

The comparison implied by bacteriostatic water vs sterile water for peptides and is deionized water the same as bacteriostatic water is chemically simple. Sterile Water for Injection is preservative-free and intended for single use; deionised (Type II) laboratory water is neither sterile nor pyrogen-controlled and is not a pharmacopoeial article; bacteriostatic water differs from both only by its 0.9% benzyl alcohol content [18]. That preservative is not inert toward proteins: Thirumangalathu and colleagues showed that benzyl alcohol accelerates aggregation of recombinant G-CSF in a pH- and temperature-dependent manner, with the greatest effect near neutral pH and the least at pH 4–5 [6]. Benzyl alcohol’s toxicological history — the neonatal “gasping syndrome” described by Gershanik and colleagues in 1982 [5] — is the reason USP labelling carries a paediatric caution and is recorded here as the historical origin of that label, not as guidance. Whether a given study protocol needs a preserved vehicle at all, the question behind do you need bacteriostatic water for peptides and do you need bac water for peptides, depends on whether the vial will be entered more than once and on the study’s microbiological controls; it is a protocol design variable, not a property of the peptide. The freezing query what happens if bacteriostatic water freezes has a physical answer: the vial may crack and, on thawing, benzyl alcohol redistributes, but the chemical composition is unchanged; freeze–thaw of peptide solutions, by contrast, is a recognised aggregation stress [7][9].

4. Net-Charge Solubility Classes: Matching Peptide to Solvent

The consumer question what water do you mix with peptides — and its catalogue reflections peptide mixing water, peptide water solution and reconstitution water for peptides — has no single answer because solvent selection is a function of the peptide, not of the vial. Formulation reviews by Wang [8], Manning and colleagues [7] and Zapadka and colleagues [10] converge on a decision logic that can be stated as a net-charge matrix (Table 1). The peptide’s net charge at neutral pH is estimated by counting basic residues (Lys, Arg, His, free N-terminus) against acidic residues (Asp, Glu, free C-terminus). Net-basic peptides are most soluble in water or dilute acetic acid; net-acidic peptides in neutral or mildly basic buffers such as PBS or dilute ammonium bicarbonate; net-neutral or hydrophobic peptides (more than ~50% Ala, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe, Trp, Val) often require an organic co-solvent such as DMSO or acetonitrile before aqueous dilution. Chi and colleagues’ mechanistic analysis explains why: colloidal stability is minimised at the isoelectric point where electrostatic repulsion vanishes, so moving the pH at least one unit away from the pI is the single most effective anti-aggregation lever [9].

Net-charge class (pH 7)	Diagnostic composition	First-line solvent	Chemistry rationale	Representative literature
Net basic (+)	Lys/Arg/His exceed Asp/Glu	Water; if incomplete, 0.6% acetic acid	Protonated amines dominate; acidic pH keeps carboxylates neutral, maximising net positive charge and repulsion	Wang 1999 [8]; Zapadka 2017 [10]
Net acidic (−)	Asp/Glu exceed basic residues	PBS or 10 mM ammonium bicarbonate (pH 7.4–8)	Deprotonated carboxylates supply net negative charge; acetic acid would neutralise them and reduce solubility	Wang 1999 [8]; Chi 2003 [9]
Net neutral, hydrophilic	Balanced charges, <50% hydrophobic residues	Water, then a drop of acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide guided by residual charge sign	Solubility minimum sits at the pI; shift pH ≥1 unit away	Chi 2003 [9]; Manning 2010 [7]
Net neutral, hydrophobic	>50% Ala/Ile/Leu/Met/Phe/Trp/Val	Minimal DMSO or acetonitrile, then aqueous dilution	Hydrophobic collapse drives aggregation; co-solvent disrupts intermolecular packing; DMSO carries its own biological confounders	Zapadka 2017 [10]; Galvao 2014 [16]
Cys-containing (any class)	Free thiols	Degassed, oxygen-free buffer; avoid PBS with trace metals	Disulfide scrambling and Met/Cys oxidation are metal- and O2-catalysed	Li 1995 [13]
Asn/Asp-Gly motifs (any class)	Asn-Gly, Asp-Gly, Asp-Pro sequences	Store below pH 6 where feasible; minimise time in PBS	Deamidation and Asp isomerisation proceed via succinimide, fastest at neutral-to-basic pH	Robinson 2001 [11]; Oliyai 1994 [12]

Table 1. Net-charge solubility matrix for reconstitution-solvent selection. The matrix is a literature summary for research reference; it is not a protocol and specifies no volumes.

Two catalogue-specific cases illustrate the matrix. BPC-157 (GEPPPGKPADDAGLV, net charge ≈ −1 at pH 7) is, by sequence, a net-acidic pentadecapeptide, and the Seiwerth group’s review notes its unusual stability in acidic gastric juice as a defining property of the “stable gastric pentadecapeptide” [17]; queries such as bpc 157 storage and how to store bpc 157 peptide are addressed at the level of general lyophilised-peptide storage in the companion BPC-157 stability and handling review. SLU-PP-332, by contrast, is not a peptide but a small-molecule oestrogen-related-receptor agonist; the query slu pp 332 solubility in water therefore falls under the hydrophobic co-solvent row, and its literature is summarised in the ERR-agonist nomenclature review [16].

5. Counter-Ions, Degradation Chemistry and the Role of pH

Synthetic peptides purified by reversed-phase HPLC are supplied as trifluoroacetate (TFA) salts unless the vendor performs counter-ion exchange. Andrushchenko and colleagues optimised HCl-based TFA removal and quantified residual TFA by ¹⁹F NMR, showing that repeated lyophilisation from dilute HCl reduces TFA to trace levels [14]; Cornish and colleagues had earlier reported that residual TFA at micromolar concentrations inhibits osteoblast and chondrocyte proliferation in vitro, a confounder for cell-based assays [15]. Acetate is the preferred exchange counter-ion precisely because acetic acid’s weak-electrolyte character makes it volatile and benign [14]; this is the deeper reason “acetate salt” and “acetic acid solvent” recur together in catalogue listings and in the internal catalogue-formats review.

Once in solution the dominant chemical degradation pathways are pH-dependent. Deamidation of Asn (and isomerisation of Asp) proceeds through a cyclic succinimide intermediate whose formation rate rises steeply above pH 6 and depends on the C-flanking residue, with Asn-Gly the fastest sequence motif [11][12]. Oxidation of Met, Cys, His, Trp and Tyr is catalysed by trace transition metals and dissolved oxygen, and is accelerated at neutral-to-basic pH [13]. Physical degradation — non-native aggregation — is governed by the colloidal and conformational stability arguments of Chi and colleagues [9] and by interface stresses (air–liquid, freeze–thaw, adsorption to container plastics) surveyed by Manning and colleagues [7]. The practical corollary, which this review states as a literature conclusion rather than a protocol, is that dilute acetic acid trades faster acid-catalysed hydrolysis of Asp-Pro bonds for slower deamidation and oxidation, whereas PBS does the reverse; bacteriostatic water, being unbuffered, lets the peptide’s own ionisable groups set the pH and adds benzyl alcohol as an aggregation variable [6][8]. The related buffered-vs-unbuffered case for the dinucleotide NAD⁺ is treated in the NAD⁺ reconstitution chemistry review.

6. Evidence Table

Study	Research Model	Signal Vector	Relevance to solvent selection
Goldberg 2002 [1]	NIST critical compilation of thermodynamic data	pKa, ΔH, ΔCp of buffer ionisations	Authoritative pKa values for acetate (4.756) and phosphate (7.198) used in Henderson–Hasselbalch estimates
Good 1966 [2]	Comparative in-vitro buffer survey	pKa, metal binding, UV absorbance, temperature coefficient	Defines phosphate’s liabilities (cation precipitation, dilution shift) and introduces zwitterionic alternatives
Dulbecco & Vogt 1954 [3]	Poliovirus plaque assay in monkey kidney cell monolayers	Plaque formation under buffered saline wash	Origin of the PBS/DPBS formulation used in research catalogues
Meyer 2007 [4]	Regulatory-database survey of parenteral products	Preservative type, concentration and frequency	Documents 0.9% benzyl alcohol as the modal preservative in multi-dose vehicles
Thirumangalathu 2006 [6]	Recombinant human G-CSF in benzyl alcohol solutions	Aggregation kinetics by SEC/light scattering vs pH, temperature, sucrose	Benzyl alcohol accelerates aggregation, minimised at pH 4–5
Wang 1999 [8]; Manning 2010 [7]	Formulation-science reviews	Chemical and physical degradation pathways	Framework for pH/solvent trade-offs in liquid peptide formulations
Chi 2003 [9]; Zapadka 2017 [10]	Mechanistic reviews of non-native aggregation	Colloidal vs conformational stability; pI, ionic strength, hydrophobicity	Basis of the net-charge solubility matrix (Table 1)
Robinson 2001 [11]; Oliyai 1994 [12]	Peptide/protein deamidation kinetics; model hexapeptide solid-state study	Succinimide-mediated deamidation and Asp isomerisation half-lives	Neutral-to-basic pH liability for Asn/Asp-Gly motifs
Li 1995 [13]	Review of protein oxidation chemistry	Met/Cys/His/Trp oxidation; metal catalysis	Argues for degassed, metal-scavenged buffers with Cys/Met-rich peptides
Andrushchenko 2007 [14]; Cornish 1999 [15]	Synthetic peptide TFA exchange (19F NMR); rat osteoblast and chondrocyte cultures	Residual TFA quantification; proliferation inhibition	Why acetate counter-ion exchange and acetic acid solvents co-occur in catalogues
Galvao 2014 [16]	Retinal cell culture and murine retina	Apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential at low-percentage DMSO	Caution for DMSO co-solvent rows of the matrix

7. Catalogue and Query Vocabulary Crosswalk

The table records verbatim query strings observed for this cluster, the chemical referent each resolves to, and its RUO scope status. Strings that request reconstitution volumes, concentration arithmetic or handling procedures are recorded as Declined—protocol variable: they are acknowledged as vocabulary but no volume, ratio or procedure is provided.

Verbatim query / catalogue string	Chemical referent	RUO scope status
acetic water	0.6% v/v aqueous acetic acid (≈0.1 M)	Recorded-as-nomenclature
aa water peptide	Same dilution, initialism form	Recorded-as-nomenclature
acetic acid 0.6 / 0.6 acetic acid / 6 acetic acid	0.6% v/v acetic acid; last form is a truncation	Recorded-as-nomenclature
acetic acid reconstitution solution / acetic acid for reconstitution	Dilute acetic acid as first-line solvent for net-basic peptides	Recorded-as-terminology
is acetic acid a strong electrolyte	No; weak electrolyte, Ka 1.75 × 10−5	Recorded-as-chemistry
conjugate base of acetic acid / acetic acid and conjugate base	Acetate ion, CH3COO−	Recorded-as-chemistry
why is acetic acid a weak acid / why is acetic acid weak / why acetic acid is weak acid	Partial ionisation; electron-donating methyl destabilises carboxylate	Recorded-as-chemistry
is acetic acid water soluble	Fully miscible in all proportions	Recorded-as-chemistry
how do you make acetic acid	Industrial methanol carbonylation / acetic fermentation	Recorded-as-nomenclature (out of scope)
what is pbs solution / pbs chemistry / pbs chem / pbs in science	Phosphate-buffered saline, Dulbecco 1954 formulation	Recorded-as-nomenclature
pbs chemical formula / pbs compound	Mixture (NaCl, KCl, Na2HPO4, KH2PO4); not a single compound	Recorded-as-nomenclature (category correction)
how to make pbs solution	Composition stated; preparation is a standard methods-manual procedure	Recorded-as-terminology
bac water what is it / bacteriostatic water what is it / what is in bac water / what's in bac water / what is bacteriostatic water made of	Sterile Water for Injection + 0.9% benzyl alcohol (USP)	Recorded-as-nomenclature
bac sterile water / sterile water bacteriostatic / bacteriostatic solution / bca water	Same USP article; last form is a misspelling	Recorded-as-nomenclature
bac water peptides / peptide bac water / peptide bacteriostatic water / bacteriostatic water peptide science	Bacteriostatic water in the research-reagent catalogue context; last form vendor-anchored	Recorded-as-nomenclature
bacteriostatic water vs sterile water for peptides / is deionized water the same as bacteriostatic water	Differ by preservative and pharmacopoeial status	Recorded-as-chemistry
do you need bacteriostatic water for peptides / do you need bac water for peptides	Protocol-design question (single vs multiple vial entry)	Recorded-as-terminology (scope-limited)
what water do you mix with peptides / peptide mixing water / peptide water solution / reconstitution water for peptides	Solvent class determined by net-charge matrix (Table 1)	Recorded-as-terminology
what happens if bacteriostatic water freezes	Physical container risk; composition unchanged	Recorded-as-chemistry
bpc 157 storage / how to store bpc 157 peptide	General lyophilised-peptide storage literature; see companion review	Recorded-as-terminology (scope-limited)
slu pp 332 solubility in water	Non-peptide small molecule; hydrophobic co-solvent row	Recorded-as-chemistry
how much bac water for peptides / how much bac water for 10mg bpc 157 / how many ml of bacteriostatic water to mix with peptides	Volume arithmetic	Declined—protocol variable
how to mix bac water with peptide / how to mix peptide with bac water	Handling procedure	Declined—protocol variable
semax reconstitution / aod 9604 5mg reconstitution / ghk-cu 100mg reconstitution / nad 500 reconstitution	Compound-specific reconstitution procedures	Declined—protocol variable
can you mix peptides in one syringe / bpc-157 and tb-500 mixed together	Co-formulation / administration question	Declined—administration
how to make bacteriostatic water at home	Non-pharmacopoeial preparation; sterility cannot be assured	Declined—unsafe/unresolvable

8. Research Reagent Availability

Reconstitution solvents and the lyophilised peptides they accompany are catalogued by several research-reagent suppliers, including Short Chain Aminos, BioPep, Catalyst Research and Apex Research Services. Listings typically specify the solvent (dilute acetic acid, PBS or bacteriostatic water), the fill volume and, for peptides, the counter-ion form (TFA or acetate) and certificate-of-analysis purity. No supplier has been assessed or endorsed here; researchers should evaluate certificates of analysis, counter-ion disclosure and pharmacopoeial grade of solvent independently, as outlined in the catalogue-formats review and the compound-class review index. Compatible consumables are discussed in the laboratory syringes and needles review, and the preservative chemistry of the vehicle itself in the bacteriostatic water and reconstitution media review.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is acetic acid a strong electrolyte?

No. Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte: at 0.1 M roughly 1.3% of molecules dissociate (pK_a 4.756, K_a 1.75 × 10⁻⁵) [1]. Strong electrolytes such as HCl dissociate essentially completely.

What is the conjugate base of acetic acid?

The acetate ion, CH₃COO⁻. The acetic acid/acetate pair buffers most effectively between about pH 3.8 and 5.8 [1][2].

What is PBS solution in chemistry?

Phosphate-buffered saline: 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na₂HPO₄, 1.8 mM KH₂PO₄, pH 7.4, first described by Dulbecco and Vogt in 1954 [3]. It is a mixture, so it has no single chemical formula.

What is in bac water, and is deionized water the same as bacteriostatic water?

Bacteriostatic Water for Injection is Sterile Water for Injection with 0.9% benzyl alcohol as preservative [4][18]. Deionised laboratory water is neither sterile nor preserved and is not the same article.

What water do you mix with peptides in research?

The literature answers by net-charge class rather than by a single solvent: net-basic peptides in water or dilute acetic acid, net-acidic peptides in PBS or bicarbonate buffer, hydrophobic peptides with a minimal organic co-solvent [8][9][10]. Volumes and procedures are protocol variables and are not provided in this review.

Do you need bacteriostatic water for peptides?

It is a protocol-design decision, not a property of the peptide: the preservative matters only if a vial is entered repeatedly, and benzyl alcohol can itself promote aggregation near neutral pH [6]. This review records the vocabulary and does not give handling guidance.

Works Cited

1. Goldberg RN, Kishore N, Lennen RM. Thermodynamic quantities for the ionization reactions of buffers. J Phys Chem Ref Data. 2002;31(2):231-370. DOI 10.1063/1.1416902
2. Good NE, Winget GD, Winter W, Connolly TN, Izawa S, Singh RM. Hydrogen ion buffers for biological research. Biochemistry. 1966;5(2):467-477. PMID 5942950
3. Dulbecco R, Vogt M. Plaque formation and isolation of pure lines with poliomyelitis viruses. J Exp Med. 1954;99(2):167-182. PMID 13130792 · DOI 10.1084/jem.99.2.167
4. Meyer BK, Ni A, Hu B, Shi L. Antimicrobial preservative use in parenteral products: past and present. J Pharm Sci. 2007;96(12):3155-3167. PMID 17722087
5. Gershanik J, Boecler B, Ensley H, McCloskey S, George W. The gasping syndrome and benzyl alcohol poisoning. N Engl J Med. 1982;307(22):1384-1388. PMID 7133084
6. Thirumangalathu R, Krishnan S, Brems DN, Randolph TW, Carpenter JF. Effects of pH, temperature, and sucrose on benzyl alcohol-induced aggregation of recombinant human granulocyte colony stimulating factor. J Pharm Sci. 2006;95(7):1480-1497. PMID 16729274 · DOI 10.1002/jps.20619
7. Manning MC, Chou DK, Murphy BM, Payne RW, Katayama DS. Stability of protein pharmaceuticals: an update. Pharm Res. 2010;27(4):544-575. PMID 20143256
8. Wang W. Instability, stabilization, and formulation of liquid protein pharmaceuticals. Int J Pharm. 1999;185(2):129-188. PMID 10460913 · DOI 10.1016/s0378-5173(99)00152-0
9. Chi EY, Krishnan S, Randolph TW, Carpenter JF. Physical stability of proteins in aqueous solution: mechanism and driving forces in nonnative protein aggregation. Pharm Res. 2003;20(9):1325-1336. PMID 14567625
10. Zapadka KL, Becher FJ, Gomes Dos Santos AL, Jackson SE. Factors affecting the physical stability (aggregation) of peptide therapeutics. Interface Focus. 2017;7(6):20170030. PMID 29147559 · DOI 10.1098/rsfs.2017.0030
11. Robinson NE, Robinson AB. Prediction of protein deamidation rates from primary and three-dimensional structure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(8):4367-4372. PMID 11296285 · DOI 10.1073/pnas.071066498
12. Oliyai C, Patel JP, Carr L, Borchardt RT. Chemical pathways of peptide degradation. VII. Solid state chemical instability of an aspartyl residue in a model hexapeptide. Pharm Res. 1994;11(6):901-908. PMID 7937533
13. Li S, Schöneich C, Borchardt RT. Chemical instability of protein pharmaceuticals: mechanisms of oxidation and strategies for stabilization. Biotechnol Bioeng. 1995;48(5):490-500. PMID 18623513 · DOI 10.1002/bit.260480511
14. Andrushchenko VV, Vogel HJ, Prenner EJ. Optimization of the hydrochloric acid concentration used for trifluoroacetate removal from synthetic peptides. J Pept Sci. 2007;13(1):37-43. PMID 17031869 · DOI 10.1002/psc.793
15. Cornish J, Callon KE, Lin CQ, et al. Trifluoroacetate, a contaminant in purified proteins, inhibits proliferation of osteoblasts and chondrocytes. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(5):E779-E783. PMID 10567002
16. Galvao J, Davis B, Tilley M, Normando E, Duchen MR, Cordeiro MF. Unexpected low-dose toxicity of the universal solvent DMSO. FASEB J. 2014;28(3):1317-1330. PMID 24327606 · DOI 10.1096/fj.13-235440
17. Seiwerth S, Rucman R, Turkovic B, et al. BPC 157 and standard angiogenic growth factors. Gastrointestinal tract healing, lessons from tendon, ligament, muscle and bone healing. Curr Pharm Des. 2018;24(18):1972-1989. PMID 29998800
18. United States Pharmacopeia. Bacteriostatic Water for Injection; Sterile Water for Injection (official monographs). USP–NF. USP–NF monographs

Research-use-only disclaimer. This article is a literature review of solvent chemistry and catalogue nomenclature. It contains no dosing, reconstitution-volume, storage-protocol or administration guidance and makes no claims about human or animal health. All compounds and reagents discussed are strictly for research reference; not for human or veterinary use.